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Tuesday, June 10, 2014
The Secret to Achieve Success
For All Working, Seeking for Work.
Attend Personal Efficiency workshop and learn.
How to overcome Insecurities of a job or Business.
How to handle confused Situations.
How you can take the best decisions.
How to be improve your relationships.
An understanding of Human Behavior.
How to feel fresh after a long day at work.
How you control any activity or things/situations in Life.
The secrets to achieve success.
and much more.
How to overcome Insecurities of a job or Business.
How to handle confused Situations.
How you can take the best decisions.
How to be improve your relationships.
An understanding of Human Behavior.
How to feel fresh after a long day at work.
How you control any activity or things/situations in Life.
The secrets to achieve success.
and much more.
Sleep After Learning Can Enhance Your Memory
Study Reveals Deep Sleep After Learning Encourages Dendrite Growth
- Experts have long known that there is an important link between sleep and learning
- Sleep deprived mice experienced less dendritic growth than well-rested mice after a learning task
- Deep sleep results in actual physical changes in the brain
One of the major explanations for why we sleep is known as the information consolidation theory, which suggests that one of the primary functions of sleep is to process information that has been acquired and stored throughout the day.
"We've known for a long time that sleep plays an important role in learning and memory. If you don't sleep well you won't learn well," suggested Wen-Biao Gan, PhD, professor of neuroscience and physiology and primary researcher in a new study that explores the mechanisms behind this process.
How Does Sleep Enhance Learning?
While experts have long known that sleep is critical for learning and memory, the underlying mechanisms behind this process were not well understood.The study, published in Science, reveals that learning followed by sleep helps promote the growth of dendritic spines. These dentritic spines are tiny protrusions at the ends of neurons that connect brain cells and facilitate the transmission of information across synapses.
"Here we've shown how sleep helps neurons form very specific connections on dendritic branches that may facilitate long-term memory. We also show how different types of learning form synapses on different branches of the same neurons, suggesting that learning causes very specific structural changes in the brain," Gan explained in a press release from the NYU Langone Media Center.
Evaluating the Impact of Sleep on Mice
To study this process, Gan and colleagues utilized mice that had been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in neurons. The researchers were then able to utilize a laser-scanning microscope to illuminate and track the growth of proteins in the motor cortex, revealing the growth of dendritic spines before and after the mice learned how to balance on a spin rod.The scientists first observed that mice would indeed experience dendritic growth after learning to balance on the spin rods. Next, the mice were divided into two groups. The first group trained at balancing and then slept for seven hours. The second group performed the same training, but stayed awake after for seven hours.
Increased Dendrite Growth In Well-Rested Mice
The results revealed that the mice in the sleep-deprivation group experienced significantly less dentritic growth than those in the sleep group. Interestingly, the type of task that was learned also influenced exactly which dendrites would grow.The study offers insight into the importance of sleep and the impact it has on learning and memory.
"Now we know that when we learn something new, a neuron will grow new connections on a specific branch,” Gan suggested. “Imagine a tree that grows leaves (spines) on one branch but not another branch. When we learn something new, it’s like we’re sprouting leaves on a specific branch."
Sleep After Learning Can Enhance Your Memory
Sleep After Learning Can Enhance Your Memory
Study Reveals Deep Sleep After Learning Encourages Dendrite Growth
- Experts have long known that there is an important link between sleep and learning
- Sleep deprived mice experienced less dendritic growth than well-rested mice after a learning task
- Deep sleep results in actual physical changes in the brain
One of the major explanations for why we sleep is known as the information consolidation theory, which suggests that one of the primary functions of sleep is to process information that has been acquired and stored throughout the day.
"We've known for a long time that sleep plays an important role in learning and memory. If you don't sleep well you won't learn well," suggested Wen-Biao Gan, PhD, professor of neuroscience
- Sleep deprived mice experienced less dendritic growth than well-rested mice after a learning task
- Deep sleep results in actual physical changes in the brain
One of the major explanations for why we sleep is known as the information consolidation theory, which suggests that one of the primary functions of sleep is to process information that has been acquired and stored throughout the day.
"We've known for a long time that sleep plays an important role in learning and memory. If you don't sleep well you won't learn well," suggested Wen-Biao Gan, PhD, professor of neuroscience and physiology and primary researcher in a new study that explores the mechanisms behind this process.
How Does Sleep Enhance Learning?
While experts have long known that sleep is critical for learning and memory, the underlying mechanisms behind this process were not well understood.The study, published in Science, reveals that learning followed by sleep helps promote the growth of dendritic spines. These dentritic spines are tiny protrusions at the ends of neurons that connect brain cells and facilitate the transmission of information across synapses.
"Here we've shown how sleep helps neurons form very specific connections on dendritic branches that may facilitate long-term memory. We also show how different types of learning form synapses on different branches of the same neurons, suggesting that learning causes very specific structural changes in the brain," Gan explained in a press release from the NYU Langone Media Center.
Evaluating the Impact of Sleep on Mice
To study this process, Gan and colleagues utilized mice that had been genetically engineered to express fluorescent proteins in neurons. The researchers were then able to utilize a laser-scanning microscope to illuminate and track the growth of proteins in the motor cortex, revealing the growth of dendritic spines before and after the mice learned how to balance on a spin rod.The scientists first observed that mice would indeed experience dendritic growth after learning to balance on the spin rods. Next, the mice were divided into two groups. The first group trained at balancing and then slept for seven hours. The second group performed the same training, but stayed awake after for seven hours.
Increased Dendrite Growth In Well-Rested Mice
The results revealed that the mice in the sleep-deprivation group experienced significantly less dentritic growth than those in the sleep group. Interestingly, the type of task that was learned also influenced exactly which dendrites would grow.The study offers insight into the importance of sleep and the impact it has on learning and memory.
"Now we know that when we learn something new, a neuron will grow new connections on a specific branch,” Gan suggested. “Imagine a tree that grows leaves (spines) on one branch but not another branch. When we learn something new, it’s like we’re sprouting leaves on a specific branch."
5 Ways Your Brain Plays Tricks On You
Your brain is a wondrous thing, but it certainly
isn’t perfect. Sometimes it forgets important details like the exact
time of an important meeting. Other times it fails to notice essential
things in the world around you, leading to mistakes or poor judgments.
You might be inclined to just write off these mistakes as simple errors or blame situational variables. You were too busy, too tired, or perhaps too distracted. The fact is, however, that your brain has a number of limitations and patterns that can trip you up in a number of different ways.
The following are just a few of the psychological tendencies that might lead you astray.
You might be inclined to just write off these mistakes as simple errors or blame situational variables. You were too busy, too tired, or perhaps too distracted. The fact is, however, that your brain has a number of limitations and patterns that can trip you up in a number of different ways.
The following are just a few of the psychological tendencies that might lead you astray.
1. Your Brain Likes to Take Shortcuts
One
of the biggest shortcomings of your brain is that sometimes it's just
plain lazy. When trying to solve a problem or make a decision, your mind
often falls back on rules of thumb, mental shortcuts, or solutions that
have worked well in the past. In many cases, this is a useful and
effective approach. Using such mental shortcuts allows you to make
decisions quickly without having to laboriously think through each and
every possible solution. But sometimes these mental shortcuts, known as heuristics, can trip you up and cause you to make mistakes.
For example, you might find yourself terrified of flying on a plane because you can immediately think of several tragic, high profile plane crashes. In reality, traveling by air is actually much safer than traveling by car, but because your brain is using a mental shortcut known as the availability heuristic, you are fooled into believing that flying is much more dangerous than it is in reality.
For example, you might find yourself terrified of flying on a plane because you can immediately think of several tragic, high profile plane crashes. In reality, traveling by air is actually much safer than traveling by car, but because your brain is using a mental shortcut known as the availability heuristic, you are fooled into believing that flying is much more dangerous than it is in reality.
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2. Hidden Biases Influence Your Thinking
We are also susceptible to a number of cognitive biases
that prevent us from thinking clearly and making accurate decisions.
These common mental mistakes are patterns of thinking that result in
errors, distortions, and downright inaccurate conclusions. One example
of this is known as the confirmation bias.
Let's suppose that you have a friend who does not believe in global warming. She gives stronger credence to news stories that support her beliefs, while discounting evidence in support of the existence of global warming. The confirmation bias causes us to place a greater emphasis or even seek out things that confirm what we already believe, but to ignore or discount anything that opposes our already existing ideas.
You can probably imagine how this bias influences people on a daily basis. As we encounter information about different political debates for example, we are highly prone to seeking out stories that are well-aligned to our beliefs.
There are many different types of cognitive biases in addition to the confirmation bias. These predispositions can influence how we perceive people (such as the halo effect), how we perceive events (the hindsight bias), and what aspects of a situation we pay attention to when making a decision (the attributional bias).
Let's suppose that you have a friend who does not believe in global warming. She gives stronger credence to news stories that support her beliefs, while discounting evidence in support of the existence of global warming. The confirmation bias causes us to place a greater emphasis or even seek out things that confirm what we already believe, but to ignore or discount anything that opposes our already existing ideas.
You can probably imagine how this bias influences people on a daily basis. As we encounter information about different political debates for example, we are highly prone to seeking out stories that are well-aligned to our beliefs.
There are many different types of cognitive biases in addition to the confirmation bias. These predispositions can influence how we perceive people (such as the halo effect), how we perceive events (the hindsight bias), and what aspects of a situation we pay attention to when making a decision (the attributional bias).
3. Your Brain Likes to Play the Blame Game
When
something bad happens, it is only natural that we look for an underlying
cause to blame. The problem is that we often place the blame on the
wrong person, event, or object and frequently distort reality in order
to protect our own self-esteem.
Imagine for a moment that you just bombed an important test in your psychology class. Who’s responsible for your failure? If you are like many people, you might explain away your poor performance by blaming situational factors (“The room was so hot I couldn’t concentrate!”) or on your instructor (“We didn’t learn any of this in class! There were too many trick questions!”). In psychology, this is what is known as the actor-observer bias. When it comes to our own behavior, we are often too quick to place the blame on external forces rather than on personal choices or characteristics.
But what happens when a classmate fails a test? While we might focus on outside forces when it comes to explaining away negative events in our own lives, we often fall prey to the opposite problem when we are looking for the causes of other people’s behavior. When you fail a test, it’s because the teacher didn’t provide adequate preparation, but when a classmate fails a test, you’re likely to believe it’s because he didn’t study, that he is lazy, or that he is just plain stupid. This is what is known as the fundamental attribution error.
When something great happens to us, we tend to fall victim to what is known as the self-serving bias. If you get a promotion at work, a great grade on a test, or win a medal at an athletic event, you attribute your success to internal factors. You got that promotion because you worked hard. You did well on your test because you're smart and you studied. You excelled in your sport because you practiced regularly and are more skilled than the other players.
So why do we engage in this blame game? Researchers believe that many of our attributional biases function as a way to protect our self-esteem and guard ourselves from the fear of failure. According to this way of thinking, bad things happen to other people because they do things that you would never do, bad things happen to you because of things outside of your control, and your successes are the result of your traits, skills, efforts, and other internal characteristics.
Imagine for a moment that you just bombed an important test in your psychology class. Who’s responsible for your failure? If you are like many people, you might explain away your poor performance by blaming situational factors (“The room was so hot I couldn’t concentrate!”) or on your instructor (“We didn’t learn any of this in class! There were too many trick questions!”). In psychology, this is what is known as the actor-observer bias. When it comes to our own behavior, we are often too quick to place the blame on external forces rather than on personal choices or characteristics.
But what happens when a classmate fails a test? While we might focus on outside forces when it comes to explaining away negative events in our own lives, we often fall prey to the opposite problem when we are looking for the causes of other people’s behavior. When you fail a test, it’s because the teacher didn’t provide adequate preparation, but when a classmate fails a test, you’re likely to believe it’s because he didn’t study, that he is lazy, or that he is just plain stupid. This is what is known as the fundamental attribution error.
When something great happens to us, we tend to fall victim to what is known as the self-serving bias. If you get a promotion at work, a great grade on a test, or win a medal at an athletic event, you attribute your success to internal factors. You got that promotion because you worked hard. You did well on your test because you're smart and you studied. You excelled in your sport because you practiced regularly and are more skilled than the other players.
So why do we engage in this blame game? Researchers believe that many of our attributional biases function as a way to protect our self-esteem and guard ourselves from the fear of failure. According to this way of thinking, bad things happen to other people because they do things that you would never do, bad things happen to you because of things outside of your control, and your successes are the result of your traits, skills, efforts, and other internal characteristics.
4. You Miss Major Changes That Happen Right In Front of You
There
is simply so much going on in the world around us at any given moment
that our brains simply cannot attend to each and every detail. As a
result, we can sometimes completely miss major changes that happen right
in front of our eyes. Do you think that you would notice if the person
you were talking to suddenly switched into someone else
mid-conversation? Researchers have found that when conversational
partners were swapped during a brief interruption, the majority of
people didn’t even notice the change.
Change blindness refers to this failure to detect differences in visual scenes.
So why are we so prone to missing important shifts in the world around us? Researchers suggest that several different factors probably play a role. First, we have to deal with the limited resources that are available to us. If we are busy concentrating on one thing, we simply have to tune out huge amounts of other information that our brains cannot deal with.
Our expectations also play an important role. Would you expect a person to suddenly transform into somebody else while you were talking to them? Of course not. Because of this, our brains simply are not attuned to notice such a strange shift.
Change blindness refers to this failure to detect differences in visual scenes.
So why are we so prone to missing important shifts in the world around us? Researchers suggest that several different factors probably play a role. First, we have to deal with the limited resources that are available to us. If we are busy concentrating on one thing, we simply have to tune out huge amounts of other information that our brains cannot deal with.
Our expectations also play an important role. Would you expect a person to suddenly transform into somebody else while you were talking to them? Of course not. Because of this, our brains simply are not attuned to notice such a strange shift.
5. Your Memory Isn’t as Great as You Think
While
we often believe that our memory works like a video camera, carefully
preserving events exactly as they occurred, the reality is that our
memory is much more fragile, inaccurate, and susceptible to influence
than we would like to believe.
For example, experts have found that it is surprisingly easy to induce false memories of events that did not really occur. In one study, researchers found watching a video of other people performing an action actually led participants to believe that they had performed the task themselves.
Your memory might be good, but it is worth remembering that it is not perfect and certainly not always dependable.
We also tend to forget enormous amounts of information, from trivial details that we encounter each and every day to important information that we need. Memory expert Elizabeth Loftus suggests that there are a few major reasons behind these memory failures. Failing to retrieve the information from memory, falling victim to competing memories, failing to store information in memory, and purposely forgetting painful memories are just a few of the possible underlying causes of forgetfulness.
For example, experts have found that it is surprisingly easy to induce false memories of events that did not really occur. In one study, researchers found watching a video of other people performing an action actually led participants to believe that they had performed the task themselves.
Your memory might be good, but it is worth remembering that it is not perfect and certainly not always dependable.
We also tend to forget enormous amounts of information, from trivial details that we encounter each and every day to important information that we need. Memory expert Elizabeth Loftus suggests that there are a few major reasons behind these memory failures. Failing to retrieve the information from memory, falling victim to competing memories, failing to store information in memory, and purposely forgetting painful memories are just a few of the possible underlying causes of forgetfulness.
Final Thoughts
Your
brain is capable of remarkable things, from remembering a conversation
you had with a dear friend to solving complex mathematical problems. But
as you've seen, it certainly isn't perfect. So what can you do? There's
no way to avoid all of these potential problems, but being aware of
some of the biases, perceptual shortcomings, and memory tricks that your
brain is susceptible to can help.
Sunday, June 8, 2014
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Thursday, June 5, 2014
Marriage- L
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Fully Functioning Person
According to Carl Rogers, a fully functioning person is one who is in touch with his or her deepest and innermost feelings and desires. These individuals understand their own emotions and place a deep trust in their own instincts and urges. Unconditional positive regard plays an essential role in becoming a fully functioning person.
Rogers suggested that people have an actualizing tendency, or a need
to achieve their full potential – a concept that is often referred to as
self-actualization. Rogers believed that a fully-functioning person is
an individual who is continually working toward becoming
self-actualized. This individual has received unconditional positive
regard from others, does not place conditions on his or her own worth,
is capable of expressing feelings, and is fully open to life's many
experiences.
(Freeth, 2007)
"Such a person experiences in the present, with immediacy. He is able to live in his feelings and reactions of the moment. He is not bound by the structure of his past learnings, but these are a present resource for him insofar as they relate to the experience of the moment. He lives freely, subjectively, in an existential confrontation of this moment in life."
(Rogers, 1962)
"The fully functioning person has a flexible, constantly evolving self-concept. She is realistic, open to new experiences, and capable of changing in response to new experiences. Rather than defending against or distorting her own thoughts or feelings, the person experiences congruence: Her sense of self is consistent with her emotions and experiences. The actualizing tendency is fully operational in her, and she makes conscious choices that move her in the direction of greater growth and fulfillment of potential."
(Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2006)
Defining the Fully Functioning Person
"Essentially, the fully functioning person is completely congruent and integrated. Such a person, Rogers believes, is able to embrace 'existential living.' By this he means they are able to live fully in the here and now with personal inner freedom, with all its accompanying exciting, creative, but also challenging, aspects."(Freeth, 2007)
"Such a person experiences in the present, with immediacy. He is able to live in his feelings and reactions of the moment. He is not bound by the structure of his past learnings, but these are a present resource for him insofar as they relate to the experience of the moment. He lives freely, subjectively, in an existential confrontation of this moment in life."
(Rogers, 1962)
"The fully functioning person has a flexible, constantly evolving self-concept. She is realistic, open to new experiences, and capable of changing in response to new experiences. Rather than defending against or distorting her own thoughts or feelings, the person experiences congruence: Her sense of self is consistent with her emotions and experiences. The actualizing tendency is fully operational in her, and she makes conscious choices that move her in the direction of greater growth and fulfillment of potential."
(Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2006)
The Characteristics of a Fully Functioning Person
Characteristics of a fully functioning person include:- Openness to experience
- Lack of defensiveness
- The ability to interpret experiences accurately
- A flexible self-concept and the ability to change through experience
- The ability to trust one's experiences and form values based on those experiences
- Unconditional self-regard
- The tendency to be open to new experiences
- Does not feel the need to distort or deny experiences
- Open to feedback and willing to make realistic changes
- Lives in harmony with other people
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· A PRECISE WAY OF COMMUNICATION THAT WILL HELP YOU TO ADDRESS PEOPLE EFFECTIVELY
ART OF SELLING
Selling is not only acquiring money for Goods.
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Selling is getting your ideas and concepts accepted to your clients and the people you know in your surrounding.
Selling is not convincing people to buy your product.
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What Is Introspection?
Wundt's Experimental Technique
Wilhelm Wundt pioneered the use of a technique known as introspection.
The term introspection can be used to describe both an informal reflection process and a more formalized experimental approach.
The first meaning is the one that most people are probably the most familiar with, which involves informally examining our own internal thoughts and feelings. When we reflect on our thoughts, emotions, and memories and examine what they mean, we are engaging in introspection.
The term introspection is also used to describe a research technique that was first developed by psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. Also known as experimental self-observation, Wundt's technique involved training people to carefully and objectively as possible analyze the content of their own thoughts.
"Introspection has been the word most frequently used to describe Wundt's method," explains author David Hothersall in his text History of Psychology. "The choice is unfortunate, for it may be taken to imply a type of armchair speculation, which was certainly not what Wundt meant… Wundt's introspection was a rigidly controlled, arduous experimental procedure."
How did this experimental process work?
In Wundt's lab, highly trained observers were presented with carefully controlled sensory events. These individuals were then asked to describe their mental experiences of these events. Wundt believed that the observers needed to be in a state of high attention to the stimulus and in control of the situation. The observations were also repeated numerous times.
What was the purpose of these observations? Wundt believed that there were two key components that make up the contents of the human mind: sensations and feelings. In order to understand the mind, Wundt believed that researchers needed to do more than simply identify the structure or elements of the mind. Instead, it was essential to look at the processes and activities that occur as people experience the world around them.
Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt's, also utilized this technique although he has been accused of misrepresenting many of Wundt's original ideas. While Wundt was interested in looking at conscious experience as a whole, Titchener instead focused on breaking down mental experiences into individual components.
The use of introspection as an experimental technique was often criticized, particularly Titchener's use of the method. Schools of thought including functionalism and behaviorism believed that introspection lacked scientific reliability and objectivity.
Observations
The first meaning is the one that most people are probably the most familiar with, which involves informally examining our own internal thoughts and feelings. When we reflect on our thoughts, emotions, and memories and examine what they mean, we are engaging in introspection.
The term introspection is also used to describe a research technique that was first developed by psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. Also known as experimental self-observation, Wundt's technique involved training people to carefully and objectively as possible analyze the content of their own thoughts.
"Introspection has been the word most frequently used to describe Wundt's method," explains author David Hothersall in his text History of Psychology. "The choice is unfortunate, for it may be taken to imply a type of armchair speculation, which was certainly not what Wundt meant… Wundt's introspection was a rigidly controlled, arduous experimental procedure."
How did this experimental process work?
In Wundt's lab, highly trained observers were presented with carefully controlled sensory events. These individuals were then asked to describe their mental experiences of these events. Wundt believed that the observers needed to be in a state of high attention to the stimulus and in control of the situation. The observations were also repeated numerous times.
What was the purpose of these observations? Wundt believed that there were two key components that make up the contents of the human mind: sensations and feelings. In order to understand the mind, Wundt believed that researchers needed to do more than simply identify the structure or elements of the mind. Instead, it was essential to look at the processes and activities that occur as people experience the world around them.
Edward Titchener, a student of Wundt's, also utilized this technique although he has been accused of misrepresenting many of Wundt's original ideas. While Wundt was interested in looking at conscious experience as a whole, Titchener instead focused on breaking down mental experiences into individual components.
The use of introspection as an experimental technique was often criticized, particularly Titchener's use of the method. Schools of thought including functionalism and behaviorism believed that introspection lacked scientific reliability and objectivity.
Observations
- "Experimental introspection made use of laboratory instruments to
vary the conditions and hence make the results of internal perception
more precise, as the psycho-physical experiments initiated by Fechner or
in the sense-perception experiments of Helmholtz. In most instances
saying "yes" or "no" to an event was all that was needed, without any
descriptions of inner events. Sometimes the subject responded by
pressing a telegraph key. The ideal was to make introspection, in the
form of internal perception, as precise as external perception."
(Hilgard, 1987) - "As noted by Wundt and other scientists, introspection had
significant limitations. First, introspection was an unreliable method
of investigation. Different subjects often provided very different
introspective reports about the same stimulus. Even subjects well
trained in introspection varied in their responses to the same stimulus
from trial to trial. Second, introspection could not be used to study
children or animals. Third, complex topics, such as learning,
development, mental disorders, and personality, could not be
investigated using introspection."
(Hockenbury & Hockenbury, 2006)
What Is Problem-Solving?
Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.
The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.
Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.
The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.
The Steps in Problem-Solving
In order to correctly solve a problem, it is important to follow a series of steps. Many researchers refer to this as the problem-solving cycle, which includes developing strategies and organizing knowledge. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution. Instead, we often skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.- Identifying the Problem: While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.
- Defining the Problem: After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved.
- Forming a Strategy: The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences.
- Organizing Information: Before coming up with a solution, we need to first organize the available information. What do we know about the problem? What do we not know? The more information that is available, the better prepared we will be to come up with an accurate solution.
- Allocating Resources: Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is. If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources into coming up with a solution.
- Monitoring Progress: Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies.
- Evaluating the Results: After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.
Tuesday, May 27, 2014
You know, you're only using 10 percent of your brain. Just imagine what you could accomplish if you used the other 90 percent!"
Chances are high that you have heard someone make a similar comment at some time or another. The popularly and widely spread belief that we only use or have access to 10 percent of our brain's power is often used to speculate about the extent of human abilities if only we could utilize our brain's full capacity.
In reality, this claim is 100 percent myth. We use all of our brain. The only instances where there are unused regions of the brain are those in which brain damage or disease has destroyed certain regions.
The myth has perpetuated much like other urban legends. Well-intentioned people such as motivational speakers or teachers often cite the 10 percent myth as a way to demonstrate that all people should strive to live up to their full potential. Unfortunately, less well-meaning people have also used the myth to promote and sell products and services that they claim will unlock your brain's hidden potential.
References
Beyerstein, B. L. (1999). Whence cometh the myth that we only use 10% of our brains? In Sergio Della Sala. Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain.. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Vreeman, R. C. & Carroll, A. E. (2007). Medical myths. BMJ, 33, 1288.
Chances are high that you have heard someone make a similar comment at some time or another. The popularly and widely spread belief that we only use or have access to 10 percent of our brain's power is often used to speculate about the extent of human abilities if only we could utilize our brain's full capacity.
In reality, this claim is 100 percent myth. We use all of our brain. The only instances where there are unused regions of the brain are those in which brain damage or disease has destroyed certain regions.
The Origins of the Myth
Researchers suggest that this popular urban legend has existed since at least the early 1900s. It may have been influenced by people misunderstanding or misinterpreting neurological research. The 10 percent myth may have emerged from the writings of psychologist and philosopher William James. In his 1908 book, The Energies of Men, he wrote, "We are making use of only a small part of our possible mental and physical resources."The myth has perpetuated much like other urban legends. Well-intentioned people such as motivational speakers or teachers often cite the 10 percent myth as a way to demonstrate that all people should strive to live up to their full potential. Unfortunately, less well-meaning people have also used the myth to promote and sell products and services that they claim will unlock your brain's hidden potential.
Debunking the 10 Percent Myth
Neuroscientists point out a number of reasons why the 10 percent myth is false:- Brain imaging scans clearly show that almost all regions of the brain are active during even fairly routine tasks such as talking, walking, and listening to music.
- If the 10 percent myth were true, people who suffer brain damage as the result of an accident or stroke would probably not notice any real effect. In reality, there isn't a single area of the brain that can be damaged without resulting in some sort of consequence.
- We would not have evolved such large brains if we were only using such a tiny portion of them.
- The brain uses approximately 20 percent of the body's energy. It would make little evolutionary sense to have such a large portion of our energy resources utilized by such a tiny amount of the brain.
- Brain mapping research has yet to find any region of the brain that does not serve a function. "Numerous types of brain imaging studies show that no area of the brain is completely silent or inactive," wrote Dr. Rachel C. Vreeman and Dr. Aaron E. Carroll in a study of medical myths. "Detailed probing of the brain has failed to identify the 'non-functioning' 90 percent."
References
Beyerstein, B. L. (1999). Whence cometh the myth that we only use 10% of our brains? In Sergio Della Sala. Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain.. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Vreeman, R. C. & Carroll, A. E. (2007). Medical myths. BMJ, 33, 1288.
What Is Extrinsic Motivation?
Extrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise. This type of motivation arises from outside the individual, as opposed to intrinsic motivation, which originates inside of the individual.
Think about your own motivation for reading this article. Are you trying to learn the material so that you can get a good grade in your psychology class? This means that you are studying the material to gain external reinforcement (getting a good grade), which means that your behavior is extrinsically motivated.
Definitions of Extrinsic Motivation
"Extrinsic motivation refers to our tendency to perform activities for known external rewards, whether they be tangible (e.g., money) or psychological (e.g., praise) in nature."
(Brown, Psychology of Motivation, 2007)
"Motivation can come from the outside, such as the motivation to win medals, receive financial rewards, and attract attention from the media. This is known as external, or extrinsic, motivation because it involves participation in sport for some kind of reward that is external to the process of participation."
(Karageorghis & Terry, Inside Sport Psychology, 1969)
Extrinsic Rewards and Motivation
Do extrinsic rewards increase motivation?
While offering rewards can increase motivation in some cases, researchers have also found that this is not always the case. In fact, offering excessive rewards can actually lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation.
The tendency of extrinsic motivation to interfere with intrinsic motivation is known as the overjustification effect. This involves a decrease in intrinsically motivated behaviors after the behavior is extrinsically rewarded and the reinforcement is subsequently discontinued.
In a classic experiment by Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1973), children were rewarded lavishly for drawing with felt-tip pens, an activity that they had previously enjoyed doing on their own during play time. When the children were later offered the chance to play with the pens during play time, the children who had been rewarded for using them previously showed little interest in playing with the pens again. The kids who had not been rewarded, however, continued to play with the pens.
Why would rewarding an already intrinsically rewarding behavior lead to this sudden disinterest? One reason is that people tend to analyze their own motivations for engaging in an activity. Once they have been externally rewarded for performing an action, they assign too much importance to the role of the reinforcement in their behavior. Another possible reason is that activities that initially feel like play or fun can be transformed into work or obligations when tied to an external reward.
Extrinsic rewards can be an important tool in motivating behavior, but experts caution that they should be used with caution, especially with children. Extrinsic motivators are best applied in situations where people have little initial interest in performing the activity or in cases where basic skills are lacking, but these rewards should be kept small and should be tied directly to the performance of a specific behavior. Once some intrinsic interest has been generated and some essential skills have been established, the external motivators should be slowly phased out.
Observations
"The overjustification effect imposes a limitation on operant conditioning and its effectiveness in applied settings. It tells us that we need to be careful in our use of operant conditioning so that we do not undermine intrinsic motivation. It also tells us that we must consider the possible cognitive consequences of using extrinsic reinforcement."
(Griggs, Psychology: A Concise Introduction, 2010)
"To sense the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, you might reflect on your own current experience. Are you feeling pressured to get this reading done before a deadline? Worried about your course grade? Eager for rewards that depend on your doing well? If yes, then you are extrinsically motivated (as, to some extent, all students are). Are you also finding the course material interesting? Does learning it lead to you feel more competent? If there were no grade at stake, might you be curious enough to want to learn the material for its own sake? If yes, then intrinsic motivation also fuels your efforts."
(Myers, Exploring Psychology, 2005)
Extrinsic motivation refers to behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise. This type of motivation arises from outside the individual, as opposed to intrinsic motivation, which originates inside of the individual.
Think about your own motivation for reading this article. Are you trying to learn the material so that you can get a good grade in your psychology class? This means that you are studying the material to gain external reinforcement (getting a good grade), which means that your behavior is extrinsically motivated.
Definitions of Extrinsic Motivation
"Extrinsic motivation refers to our tendency to perform activities for known external rewards, whether they be tangible (e.g., money) or psychological (e.g., praise) in nature."
(Brown, Psychology of Motivation, 2007)
"Motivation can come from the outside, such as the motivation to win medals, receive financial rewards, and attract attention from the media. This is known as external, or extrinsic, motivation because it involves participation in sport for some kind of reward that is external to the process of participation."
(Karageorghis & Terry, Inside Sport Psychology, 1969)
Extrinsic Rewards and Motivation
Do extrinsic rewards increase motivation?
While offering rewards can increase motivation in some cases, researchers have also found that this is not always the case. In fact, offering excessive rewards can actually lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation.
The tendency of extrinsic motivation to interfere with intrinsic motivation is known as the overjustification effect. This involves a decrease in intrinsically motivated behaviors after the behavior is extrinsically rewarded and the reinforcement is subsequently discontinued.
In a classic experiment by Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1973), children were rewarded lavishly for drawing with felt-tip pens, an activity that they had previously enjoyed doing on their own during play time. When the children were later offered the chance to play with the pens during play time, the children who had been rewarded for using them previously showed little interest in playing with the pens again. The kids who had not been rewarded, however, continued to play with the pens.
Why would rewarding an already intrinsically rewarding behavior lead to this sudden disinterest? One reason is that people tend to analyze their own motivations for engaging in an activity. Once they have been externally rewarded for performing an action, they assign too much importance to the role of the reinforcement in their behavior. Another possible reason is that activities that initially feel like play or fun can be transformed into work or obligations when tied to an external reward.
Extrinsic rewards can be an important tool in motivating behavior, but experts caution that they should be used with caution, especially with children. Extrinsic motivators are best applied in situations where people have little initial interest in performing the activity or in cases where basic skills are lacking, but these rewards should be kept small and should be tied directly to the performance of a specific behavior. Once some intrinsic interest has been generated and some essential skills have been established, the external motivators should be slowly phased out.
Observations
"The overjustification effect imposes a limitation on operant conditioning and its effectiveness in applied settings. It tells us that we need to be careful in our use of operant conditioning so that we do not undermine intrinsic motivation. It also tells us that we must consider the possible cognitive consequences of using extrinsic reinforcement."
(Griggs, Psychology: A Concise Introduction, 2010)
"To sense the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, you might reflect on your own current experience. Are you feeling pressured to get this reading done before a deadline? Worried about your course grade? Eager for rewards that depend on your doing well? If yes, then you are extrinsically motivated (as, to some extent, all students are). Are you also finding the course material interesting? Does learning it lead to you feel more competent? If there were no grade at stake, might you be curious enough to want to learn the material for its own sake? If yes, then intrinsic motivation also fuels your efforts."
(Myers, Exploring Psychology, 2005)
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